Local Temperatures Out of Equilibrium

摘要: Abstract The temperature of a physical system is operationally defined in physics as “that quantity which measured by thermometer” weakly coupled to, and at equilibrium with the system. This definition unique only global view zeroth law thermodynamics: when thermometer have reached equilibrium, “thermometer degrees freedom” can be traced out read uniquely assigned to Unfortunately, such procedure cannot straightforwardly extended where local excitations may spatially inhomogeneous thermodynamics does not hold. With advent several experimental techniques that attempt extract single parameter characterizing degree (mesoscopic or nanoscale) this issue making strong comeback forefront research. In paper, we will review difficulties define majority definitions been proposed so far, discuss both their advantages limitations. We then examine variety developed for measuring non-equilibrium temperatures under various conditions. Finally implications notion temperature, present practical applications concept nanosystems equilibrium.