Racial Categories and the Politics of (Jewish) Difference in Late Imperial Russia

摘要: The past two decades have produced a virtual explosion in academic interest racial theory and the history of race racism. Historians, literary critics, moral philosophers published staggering number books, articles, journals organized countless conferences, symposia, seminars devoted to these themes. study racism has emerged as worldwide concern that knows no geographic boundaries or chronological limitations. Yet romance with matters, scholars used so loosely, uncritically, unreflectively terms lost their analytical rigor historical specificity become "cliched vocabulary." (1) Some even advocated "forsaking once for all inflammatory exceedingly ductile category 'racism' save descriptive term referring empirically analyzable doctrines beliefs about 'race.'" (2) Others, however, continue debate significance contemporary society culture use such provocative titles Race Matters Against market books wider audience. (3) In recent years, researchers broadened inquiry include previously uncharted territories range from Greco-Roman world ("proto-racism") modern France ("soft-racism"). (4) While popularity studies continues grow attract ever more attention academy, imperial Russia shown little theoretical discussions race. (5) "absence" Russian historiography, needs be raised problem requires explanation analysis. If categories began play significant role ordering social relations behavioral practices 19th-century Europe, why did enormously influential ideas not penetrate political society? How unique was scientific community its acceptance environmental neo-Lamarckian theories development? To put it somewhat differently, resistance ideology symbolize Russia's alternative path Western civilization modernity? This article seeks integrate "race" into politics by analyzing multiple often contradictory intersections (the debates between biologically deterministic human development) everyday antisemitism intolerance played multicultural multi-religious empire). particular, I examine politicization difference context anti-liberal shift took place toward end 19th century. As deep conservatism pessimism gripped culture, Jews most visible "others" who were perceived threat health prosperity "nation." argue proved exception an otherwise tolerant flexible order is overlook very problematic (and still well understood) meanings Russianness, belonging exclusion, ways which differences constructed, defined, maintained at old regime. late Russia, had broad could--but always--overlap. first signified color designated "races" white, yellow, red, dark, black. second, ambiguous meaning categorized groups Slavs, Semites, Caucasians, Greco-Romans, Turko-Tatars "smaller" ones Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, distinct (rasy), "types" (tipy), "ethnicities" (narody) based on highly elaborate physical ethnographic descriptions. (6) could distinguished Germans Slavs skin color, they identified "Jews" characteristics ethno-cultural …