Pain as a Motivator of Smoking: Effects of Pain Induction on Smoking Urge and Behavior

摘要: According to the American Pain Society (2003), over 75 million Americans are totally or partially disabled by serious pain, and more than 50 suffer from chronic nonmalignant pain. tobacco smoking have been linked in both clinical empirical literature for decades. In fact, prevalence of among individuals pain is approximately double that general population, indicating half patients smokers (e.g., Jamison, Stetson, & Parris, 1991). Although a causal effect has yet be demonstrated, copious number mostly cross-sectional studies provide evidence an association between increased aggravation several chronically painful conditions, including: musculoskeletal rheumatoid arthritis, fibromyalgia, oral cluster headaches, bodily persons with HIV Albano, Santana-Sahagun, Weisman, 2001; Palmer, Syddall, Cooper, Coggon, 2003; Patel et al., 2006; Riley, Tomar, Gilbert, 2004; Yunus, Arslan, Aldag, 2002). Smoking also associated use opioids post-surgical Creekmore, Lugo, Weiland, 2004). Conversely, most controlled experimental induction found pain-inhibitory Girdler 2005; Jamner, Girdler, Shapiro, Jarvik, 1998), there reason believe some may motivated as means coping their pain. Researchers proposed avoidance, relief, both, powerful behavioral reinforcer important mechanism maintenance Fertig, Pomerleau, Sanders, 1986; Silverstein, 1982). For example, on questionnaires administered being treated low back 57% acknowledged need smoke when though only 9% sample stated directly affected intensity (Jamison 1991). Additionally, these were at greater risk was severe. A recent study who suffered significant previous week smoked cigarettes per day indicated no (Hahn, Rayens, Kirsh, Passik, 2006). Moreover, 18% respondents had experienced past reported using compared 4% did not endure There positive relationship daily cigarette consumption intensity, frequency, duration conditions Saag 1997; Scott, Goldberg, Mayo, Stock, Poitras, 1999; Yunus 2002). The apparent covariance reflect either smokers’ cope smoking's both. That is, direction causality uncertain. To date, research focused almost exclusively tobacco's ability influence subjective experience our knowledge, investigations into motivation. Thus, primary aim present test hypothesis laboratory-induced cold-pressor would elicit reports urge increases immediate behavior.