Beach sand and the potential for infectious disease transmission: observations and recommendations

摘要: Recent studies suggest that sand can serve as a vehicle for exposure of humans to pathogens at beach sites, resulting in increased health risks. Sampling microorganisms should therefore be considered inclusion regulatory programmes aimed protecting recreational users from infectious disease. Here, we review the literature on pathogen levels sand, and their potential affecting human health. In an effort provide specific recommendations sampling programmes, outline published guidelines monitoring which are currently focused exclusively measuring microbial water. We also background spatial distribution temporal characteristics microbes these factors influence programmes. First steps toward establishing programme include identifying appropriate sites use initial sanitary assessments refine site selection. A tiered approach is recommended monitoring. This would analysis samples many faecal indicator organisms other conventional analytes, while testing unconventional indicators reserved high-risk sites. Given diversity found urgently needed identify most significant aetiological agent disease relate measurements risk.