Bugs scaring bugs: enemy-risk effects in biological control systems.

摘要: Enemy-risk effects, often referred to as non-consumptive effects (NCEs), are an important feature of predator-prey ecology, but their significance has had little impact on the conceptual underpinning or practice biological control. We provide overview enemy-risk in interactions, discuss ways which risk may biocontrol programs and suggest avenues for further integration natural enemy ecology integrated pest management. can have influences different stages control programs, including selection, efficacy testing quantification non-target impacts. also shape interactions with other management practices. Biocontrol systems community ecologists some richest examples behaviourally mediated trophic cascades demonstrations how play out among species no shared evolutionary history, topics invasion biology conservation. conclude that longstanding use ecological theory by practitioners should be expanded incorporate will find many opportunities study settings.