Nontarget Effects of Biological Control: What are We Trying to Miss?

摘要: The history of pest management in general (Perkins 1982), and biological control particular (Coppel Mertins 1977, Caltagirone 1981, Goeden 1988, Van Driesche Bellows 1996), has been thoroughly analyzed terms the dominant practices how these actions relate to competing philosophies ecological intervention (e.g., integrated vs. total management). While it is evident environmentalism, as a social phenomenon, altered forms concepts management, not so clear ecology, scientific discipline, might change field management. A great deal work dedicated notion “nontarget” effects, particularly they chemical methods, but only recently have we begun critically assess what exactly constitutes “nontarget.” From simple perspective this would seem be self-evident—all organisms other than are nontargets. However, tautological approach does little advance science that practice, nature targets nontargets far from simple. (re)conceptualization target can lead important changes defining based on an economic threshold, USDA 1996). Extending principles our understanding promises open new avenues for monitoring protecting those elements wish protect hazards general, particular.