Landscape of fear in Europe: wolves affect spatial patterns of ungulate browsing in Bialowieza Primeval Forest, Poland

摘要: Large carnivores can either directly influence ungulate populations or indirectly affect their behaviour. Knowledge from European systems, in contrast to North American on how this might lead cascading effects lower trophic levels is virtually absent. We studied whether wolves Canis lupus via density-mediated and behaviorally-mediated prey species patterns of browsing tree regeneration inside the Bialowieza National Park, Poland. Browsing intensity saplings (height class <150 cm), irrespective forest type, was a wolf core area (50.5%) where predator presence highest, than remainder pack’s home range (58.3%). Additionally, reduced when amount coarse woody debris (CWD), which act as ?ungulate escape impediment', increased (within 5-m radius) area. No relationship existed outside As result, proportion trees growing out herbivore control more strongly with increasing CWD compared This suggests that next direct density caused by higher predation pressure area, risk are important enhanced habitat characteristics. These results indicate predators become affecting levels. first study we aware of, shows create fine-scale ungulates potential for large system. knowledge broadens discussion impact ecosystem functioning depends physical landscape, illustrating these system largely contrasts respect systems.