Trees at their Upper Limit: treelife limitation at the alpine timberline.

摘要: Preface. Contributors.- 1. Current concepts for treelife limitation at the upper timberline. 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Altitudinal position of timberline and its relation to climate. 1.3 tree life limits. 1.3.1 Climatic stress. 1.3.2 Disturbance. 1.3.3 Insufficient carbon balance. 1.3.4 Limitation cell growth tissue formation. 1.3.5 Nutritional limitation. 1.3.6 Limited regeneration. References.- 2. Climate 2.1 2.2 Effects altitude. 2.3 topography. 2.4 Canopy soil temperatures. 3. Soils - heterogeneous a microscale. 3.1 3.2 Specific pedogenetic factors 3.2.1 Parent material. 3.2.2 Precipitation. 3.2.3 Soil moisture. 3.2.4 temperature. 3.2.5 Erosion processes age. 3.2.6 Permafrost. 3.2.7 Vegetation soil. 3.2.8 Timberline fluctuations. 3.2.9 Grazing. 3.3 types humus forms. 3.3.1 on siliceous parent 3.3.2 calcareous 4. Mycorrhiza in alpine ecotone: nutritional implications. 4.1 Mycorrhizal symbioses alpine-treeline ecotone. 4.3 aspects with special reference organic nitrogen. 4.4 Concluding remarks. 5. 5.1 5.2 Growth forms 5.3 Plant communities 5.3.1 Spruce forests (Picea abies communities). 5.3.2 Fir (Abies alba 5.3.3 Larch-Swiss stone pine (Larix decidua-Pinus cembra 5.3.4 Larch decidua 5.3.5 Pinus uncinata forests. 5.3.6 Prostrate scrub (Pinus mugo 5.3.7 Sycamore-beech forest (Acer pseudoplatanus-Fagus sylvatica 5.3.8 Green alder willow scrub. 5.3.9 Dwarf shrub heath. 5.3.10 Substitutional due human landuse 6. by an insufficient assimilation allocation. 6.1 6.2 Uptake loss dioxide. 6.2.1 Net photosynthetic capacity specific respiratory trees 6.2.2 activity respect 6.2.3 Environmental constraints dioxide gas exchange. 6.3 Carbon balance 6.3.1 The 6.3.2 6.4 accumulation 6.4.1 Dry matter patterns. 6.4.2 Changes 6.5 ecosystem production 7. processes. 7.1 7.2 Shoot low 7.3 Root 7.4 Threshold temperature growth. 8. Limits water relations. 8.1 8.2 Precipitation, moisture evaporation. 8.3 Transpiration. 8.4 Water Transport. 8.5 uptake. 8.6 9. Phytopathogens 9.1 9.2 Fungal pathogens 9.3 needle rust Chrysomyxa Norway spruce. 10. Frost resistance 10.1 10.2 damage. 10.2.1 Winter. 10.2.2 hardening capacity. 10.2.3 Summer. 10.2.4 Rate change. 11. Photo-oxidative stress 11.1 11.2 Mechanisms ROS green plant cells under 11.3 Antioxidative photoprotective systems cells. 11.4 Factors causing photo-oxidative 11.5 photoprotecti