Mass loss from hot massive stars

摘要: Mass loss is a key process in the evolution of massive stars, and must be understood quantitatively if it to successfully included broader astrophysical applications such as galactic cosmic ionization. In this review, we discuss various aspects radiation driven mass loss, both from theoretical observational side. We focus on developments past decade, concentrating winds OB-stars, with some excursions Luminous Blue Variables (including super-Eddington, continuum-driven winds), Wolf–Rayet A-supergiants Central Stars Planetary Nebulae. After recapitulating 1-D, stationary standard model line-driven winds, extensions accounting for rotation magnetic fields are discussed. Stationary wind models presented that provide predictions mass-loss rates function spectral type, metallicity, proximity Eddington limit. The relevance so-called bi-stability jump outlined. summarize diagnostical methods infer properties observations, compare results corresponding campaigns VLT-flames survey stars) predictions, featuring loss-metallicity dependence. Subsequently, concentrate two urgent problems, weak wind-clumping, have been identified diagnostics challenge our present understanding winds. problems “measuring” potential NIR Brα-line tool enable more precise quantification, comment physical explanations much lower than predicted by model. Wind-clumping, conventionally interpreted consequence strong instability inherent radiative line-driving, has severe implications interpretation diagnostics, since derived usually overestimated when clumping but ignored analyses. Depending specific overestimates can amount factors 2 10, describe ongoing attempts allow uniform results. point out independent arguments stellar favor moderate reduction present-day rates. also consider larger scale structure, terms co-rotating interacting regions, complete review discussion recent progress X-ray line emission stars. Such thought originate magnetically confined non-magnetic latter case related and/or clump-clump collisions. highlight how far analysis give further clues regarding an adequate description clumping.