Reduction in Cadmium Exposure in the United States Population, 1988–2008: The Contribution of Declining Smoking Rates

摘要: Background: Public health policies such as tobacco control, air pollution reduction, and hazardous waste remediation may have reduced cadmium exposure among U.S. adults. However, trends in urine cadmium, a marker of cumulative exposure, not been evaluated. Objectives: We estimated the concentrations adults using data from National Health Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) 1988 to 2008. also evaluated impact changes distribution available determinants (age, sex, race, education, body mass index, smoking, occupation) at population level explain trends. Methods: The study included 19,759 ≥ 20 years age with measures determinants. Results: Age-adjusted geometric means were 0.36, 0.35, 0.27, 0.28, 0.25, 0.26 µg/g creatinine 1988–1991, 1991–1994, 1999–2000, 2001–2002, 2003–2004, 2005–2006, 2007–2008, respectively. age, race/ethnicity-adjusted percent reduction comparing 1999–2002 2003–2008 1988–1994 27.8% (95% confidence interval: 22.3%, 32.9%) 34.3% (29.9%, 38.4%), respectively (p-trend < 0.001), reductions all participant subgroups investigated. In never smokers, serum cotinine accounted for 15.6% observed reduction. ever smoking cessation, recent dose 17.1% reduction. Conclusions: Urine decreased markedly between Declining rates smoke played an important role decline concentrations, benefiting both smokers nonsmokers. Cadmium has associated several outcomes NHANES 1999–2008. Consequently, despite decline, further is needed.