Around the world in 10 million years: biogeography of the nearly cosmopolitan true toads (Anura: Bufonidae)

摘要: Aim The species-rich family of true toads (Anura: Bufonidae) has been the focus several earlier studies investigating biogeography geographically widespread taxa. Herein, we employ newly developed Bayesian divergence estimate methods to investigate biogeographical history this group. Resulting age estimates are used test key temporal hypotheses including that origin bufonid clade pre-dates Gondwanan vicariance (~105 million years ago, Ma). Area cladograms also invoked geographical family. Location Worldwide, except Australia‐New Guinea plate, Madagascar and Antarctic. Methods A phylogenetic hypothesis relationships among was derived from analysis 2521 bp DNA data fragments three mitochondrial ( 12S , tRNA val 16S ) two nuclear RAG-1 CXCR-4 genes. Analysis multiple, unlinked loci with a method for estimating times allowed us address timing Bufonidae. permitted investigation alternative vicariance/dispersal scenarios have proposed toads. Results Our area cladogram resulting supports South American Divergence indicate originated than had suggested previously (78‐99 enigmatic Caribbean dated late Palaeocene‐early Eocene. return bufonids New World in Eocene followed by rapid diversification secondary expansion into America early Oligocene (Rupelian). Main conclusions Bufonidae Upper Cretaceous relatively radiation around globe, ending Americas via Eurasian/North land bridge Though exact route dispersal (Beringia or North Atlantic) remains unclear, an argument is made less frequently Atlantic connection. lineage found be consistent colonization following bolide impact at K/T boundary. These findings provide first, firm foundation understanding toad their truly remarkable global radiation.