The Victorian Era: The Birth of Scientific Societies and the Blossoming of Public Health

摘要: New laboratory equipment gave an increasingly accurate picture of human physiology, with the findings eagerly discussed in scientific societies and journals. Positivism encouraged evidence-based research. Many doctors still prescribed bed rest, but some began to advise exercise not only for health also intellectual development. Florence Nightingale Almoth Wright spurred disease prevention military hospitals. Microbiology offered effective measures against epidemics, major efforts improve urban hygiene, housing working conditions Theologians philosophers argued relative contributions personal societal wellness. Rival approaches physical conditioning included German Swedish gymnastics, English “public” school sports programmes. A long list sporting organizations testified a wide range new recreational opportunities, now open women as well men. transportation networks mechanization industrial domestic work reduced daily energy expenditures. Spectator flourished, thanks newspaper publicity access by mass transit. Reading, drama, concerts, opera, burlesque class other possibilities sedentary leisure. Physical condition was viewed context survival rather than quality life, little objective data on how population fitness affected these social changes.