The induction of spinescence in European holly leaves by browsing ungulates

摘要: Evidence is presented which suggests that the spinescence of leaves European holly, Ilex aquifolium, deters feeding by ungulates and induced browsing. Spinescence decreased as leaf size increased; hence, may be achieved reducing adult size. Holly shrubs with very spiny were browsed less often than shrubs. In absence browsing during a one year period, holly significantly decreased. Browsed exhibited reduced annual shoot growth, increased branching, produced smaller high spinescence. The regrowth on branches trees was characterized relative to unbrowsed branches. Hence, response localized, thereby ability exert selective pressures trees.