Estimating Smallholder Opportunity Costs of REDD+: A Pantropical Analysis from Households to Carbon and Back

摘要: Summary Compensating forest users for the opportunity costs of foregoing deforestation and degradation was one original distinguishing features REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation Degradation). In early days REDD+, such tropical smallholders were believed to be quite low, but this has increasingly been questioned. A decade after concept proposed, direct payments stakeholders remain rare, while concerns about safeguarding livelihoods are increasing. Households facing restrictions on forest-based activities will have compensated, yet evidence actual households, their distribution, implications efficiency equity is limited. We estimate smallholder in 17 sites six countries across tropics. use household data collected multiple using a uniform methodology. find that per tCO2 emissions less than social ($36) 16 sites; only sites, however, lower 2015 voluntary market price ($3.30). While interest an perspective, it relevant local peoples’ income. calculate examine how these differ households different income groups within each site. poorer face all sites. system conditional with no transactions would earn highest rents flat payments. Our findings highlight heterogeneity asymmetrical distribution between communities bear important consequences both initiatives.