Chapter 18 Spatial Responses of Elk to Wolf Predation Risk: Using the Landscape to Balance Multiple Demands

摘要: Theme In the absence of an effective predator, spatial patterns large herbivores in northern temperate regions are largely influenced by food acquisition and energy conservation during winter, when resources limited energetic cost movement is high. these circumstances animals would be expected to minimize avoid unnecessary expenditures. With addition a top predator such strategy may not compatible with avoiding predation risk, therefore increase their detection or escape capture. Such increased occur on relatively fine scales within animal's home range manifested broader scale responses as dispersal migration. reintroduction wolves ( Canis lupus ) Yellowstone National Park 1995 1996, much attention has focused behavioral wolf risk implications ecosystem structure function. Investigations numerous but evaluations complicated due partly paucity data elk Cervus elaphus prior reintroduction. We quantified winter non‐migratory herd Madison headwaters wolves, were constrained only nutritional restrictions, following colonization establishment, experienced significant predation. evaluated changes size fidelity described predicted shift from being sedentary occupying areas based considerations more spatially dynamic responded wolves. Furthermore, we incorporated our knowledge landscape characteristics system provide possible explanations for any responses.