Temporal variation in site fidelity: scale-dependent effects of forage abundance and predation risk in a non-migratory large herbivore

摘要: Large herbivores are typically confronted by considerable spatial and temporal variation in forage abundance predation risk. Although animals can employ a range of behaviours to balance these limiting factors, scale-dependent movement patterns expected be an effective strategy reduce risk optimise foraging opportunities. We tested this prediction quantifying site fidelity global positioning system-collared, non-migratory female elk (Cervus canadensis manitobensis) across multiple nested scales using long-established elk–wolf (Canis lupus) system Manitoba, Canada. Using hierarchical analytical approach, we determined the combined effect on within four seasons scales: monthly, biweekly, weekly, daily. Site was positively related forage-rich habitat all most scales. At weekly daily scales, became increasingly attached low when high (e.g. wolves were close or pack sizes large), which supports notion that predator-avoidance movements lead trade-off between energetic requirements safety. Unexpectedly, at monthly scale increased fidelity, may indicate use behavioural responses movement, vigilance, aggregation) simultaneously dilute risk, especially longer Our study clearly shows important determinants their is apparent short Insight into ungulate populations factors such as variability essential infer fitness costs incurred.