Threats to sandy beach ecosystems: A review

摘要: Abstract We provide a brief synopsis of the unique physical and ecological attributes sandy beach ecosystems review main anthropogenic pressures acting on world's single largest type open shoreline. Threats to beaches arise from range stressors which span spectrum impact scales localised effects (e.g. trampling) truly global reach sea-level rise). These act at multiple temporal spatial scales, translating into impacts that are manifested across several dimensions in time space so today almost every coastline is threatened by human activities. Press disturbances (whatever source involved) becoming increasingly common, operating years decades. However, long-term data sets describe either natural dynamics systems or scarce fragmentary. A top priority implement field experiments monitoring programmes quantify key beaches. Because inertia associated with climate change population growth, no realistic management scenario will alleviate these threats short term. The immediate avoid further development coastal areas likely be directly impacted retreating shorelines. There also scope for improvement experimental design better distinguish variability impacts. Sea-level rise other warming expected intensify pressures, could cause unprecedented definition relevant analysis, vary according magnitude organisational level under recognition physical–biological coupling different should included approaches Zoning strategies marine reserves, have not been widely implemented beaches, tool biodiversity conservation facilitate spillover adjacent habitats. Setback zoning need enforced through legislation, all stakeholders design, implementation institutionalisation initiatives. New perspectives rational require paradigm shifts, including only basic ecosystem principles, but incentives effective governance sharing roles between government local stakeholders.