The Return of the Wolf

摘要: Apex predators may have both direct and indirect effects on other species through predation competition. I investigated the of wolves (Canis lupus) prey species, competitors (including humans) scavenging guild after re-colonization by Scandinavian Peninsula. Field methods included telemetry, snow-tracking, age determination, camera monitoring. Human extermination at end 19th century in combination with extent mode hunter harvest has caused moose (Alces alces) to become predator-naive. This resulted high hunting success rates short chase distances moose, compared areas North America where been continuously exposed wolf predation. The kill rate mainly additive exploitation competition between hunters, leading reduced within territories. In contrast, neither nor interference were evident Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), which was most likely a result having different main density shared low densities predator species. The largest food source for regarding annual amount available biomass remains autumn. Presence slightly but more important, seasonal variation providing carcasses all year round. red fox (Vulpes vulpes), common raven (Corvus corax), European pine marten (Martes martes), northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) benefit from return wolves, due their utilization wolf-killed spring when presence increased availability carcasses. In summary, apex will relatively little influence human activities large impact animal densities, such as system