Health risks from lead-based ammunition in the environment.

摘要: Lead is one of the most studied toxicants, and overwhelming scientific evidence demonstrates that lead toxic to several physiological systems in vertebrates, including nervous, renal, cardiovascular, reproductive, immune, hematologic (Health Risks from Lead-Based Ammunition Environment—A Consensus Statement Scientists 2013). Furthermore, there no level exposure children known be without adverse effects [Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) 2012a, 2012b]. In light this evidence, an urgent need end a major source animals humans: spent bullets shotgun pellets. Notably, production lead-based ammunition United States accounted > 69,000 metric tons consumed 2012; second only amount used manufacture storage batteries (U.S. Geological Survey However, are few regulations regarding release into environment through discharge ammunition. For other categories consumption, such as sheet lead/lead pipes, environmental disposal regulated. Therefore, likely greatest largely unregulated knowingly discharged States. In contrast, or distribution sources contamination (e.g., leaded gasoline, paint, solder) have been substantially regulated reduced since mid-1970s 2013). There national discussion—polarized at times—of health risks posed humans wildlife To inform discussion, group 30 nationally internationally recognized scientists with expertise recently collaborated create evidence-based consensus statement 2013) supporting reduction eventual elimination released ammunition. The pellets poses significant wildlife. The best available increases levels, especially areas higher shooting activity Environmetal Protection Agency 2012) elevated gun users (National Research Council 2012). When lead-containing shoot wildlife, they can fragment hundreds small pieces, many which enough easily ingested by scavenging retained meat prepared human consumption (Hunt et al. 2009; Knott 2010; Pauli Burkirk 2007). Consequently, may regularly ingest wild game (Hanning 2003; Johansen 2006; Levesque Tsuji 2008). addition, fragments reported gastrointestinal tracts hunters who consume shot (Carey 1977; Reddy 1985). The use shells hunting waterfowl serious threat wetland birds, secondarily bald eagles, States, leading U.S. Fish Wildlife Service’s 1991 nationwide requiring nontoxic (Anderson 1992). poisoning ingestion continues pose particularly species. These remain principal endangered California condors continue prevent successful recovery these birds (Church Finkelstein Green 2008; Parish Rideout Woods Other species, golden ravens, turkey vultures, pumas, also exposed (Burco Clark Scheuhammer Craighead Bedrosian Cruz-Martinez Fisher Kelly Johnson 2011; Stauber Wayland Bollinger 1999). No rational deliberation about ignore lead, Given availability non-lead (Thomas 2013), introduces eventually eliminated. This seems reasonable equitable action protect