Landscapes of Coexistence for terrestrial carnivores: the ecological consequences of being downgraded from ultimate to penultimate predator by humans

摘要: Fear of predation can have major impacts on the behaviour prey species. Recently concept ecology fear has been defined and formalised; yet there relatively little focus how these ideas apply to large carnivore species which, although not sensu stricto, also experience as a result threats from humans. Large carnivores are likely subject Landscape similar that described for We argue is generic, ‘human-caused mortality’ represents distinct very important cause carnivores, particularly terrestrial their activities overlap with those humans greater degree. introduce idea ‘Landscape Coexistence’ denote subset where sufficient areas low human-caused mortality risk present in landscape long term coexistence then explore aspects behavioural may be best explained by mortality, nature Coexistence shaped specific factors such habitat structure, wild domestic base, human distribution behaviour. The characteristics this determining resources. Understanding therefore biology conservation throughout parts remaining ranges. Synthesis The describing relationship between predator applies top carnivores. synthesise current research concept, arguing predators respond risks through spatiotemporal partitioning reduce contact people. character more than resources dominated landscapes. responses crucial successful