Habitat selection by ungulates in relation to predation risk by wolves and humans in the Białowieża Forest, Poland

摘要: Abstract Predation risk is an important factor influencing the distribution of ungulates and their impact on forest structure. However, simultaneous predation by wolves humans rarely considered in analyses habitat selection ungulates. We counted ungulate pellets transects to analyse influence density Bialowieza Forest, Poland. assessed whether (1) exploitation influenced selection, (2) was higher areas without human hunting, (3) avoided surroundings a major road, (4) prey strife zone between home ranges wolf packs both presence absence (5) selected wolves, (6) kill sites were high areas. Red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) wild boar Sus scrofa unexploited over exploited forests whereas roe Capreolus capreolus preferred forests. Wild European bison Bison bonasus area within 300 m we could not detect any avoidance red or deer. Prey zones, regardless hunting. Ungulates did avoid wolves. Wolves killed with about 4 red deer/km 2 , average those lower. conclude that alteration hunting more than