Nonpesticide alternatives can suppress crop pests

摘要: complete their development); pathogens (bacteria, fungi and viruses); parasites (soil-inhabiting entomopathogenic nematodes); antagonists (less damaging competitors). Three broad categories describe how natural enemies are used in biological control: classical control, augmentation conservation. In host-specific imported from the exotic pest’s region of origin. On average, a new invasive pest has arrived California every 2 months during past decade (Dowell 2002) and, with increasing global trade travel, this rate seems likely to continue or even increase. best-case scenario, enemy will establish provide long-term suppression at low densities. A historic stellar example is 1889 importation vedalia beetle Australia control cottony cushion scale, which was devastating citrus industry. second approach, when either indigenous pests unable persist year-round build populations quickly enough suppress damage, numbers can be augmented through periodic release commercially produced enemies. The inoculation small improve colonization critical periods for season-long suppression. Likewise, inundation large immediate suppression, but often without longer-lasting impact. third approach involves conservation both habitat manipulation alteration crop production practices. Natural limited by availability essential resources such as nectar overwintering sites, landscape within surrounding have major impact on effectiveness among sites regions. addition, lower tolerance many pesticides. As such, tactics include Biological cultural controls...