Temperature, ordering, and equilibrium with time-dependent confining forces

摘要: The concepts of temperature and equilibrium are not well defined in systems particles with time-varying external forces. An example is a radio frequency ion trap, the ions laser cooled into an ordered solid, characteristic sub-mK temperatures, whereas kinetic energies associated fast coherent motion trap up to 7 orders magnitude higher. Simulations 1,000 reach between degrees freedom when only aperiodic displacements (secular motion) considered. coupling periodic driven confinement nonperiodic random very small at low temperatures increases quadratically temperature.