Known knowns and unknown knowns: multiple memory routes to improved numerical estimation

摘要: Conceptual change represents a crucial, challenging, learning component. This study hypothesized and observed evidence for two parallel forms of within the Numerically-Driven Inferencing (NDI) paradigm's rather minimalist intervention providing direct feedback regarding numerical estimate---feedback that yields remarkably robust cognitive alterations. The present experiment probed nature apropos recall or estimation improvements after participants (a) provided estimates, (b) received feedback, (c) re-estimated waiting one day. results show improved estimation/recall was predicted by independent elements---surprise at an explicit sense episodic upon testing. suggests least processes: (1) (though perhaps approximate) recollection quantity's magnitude (2) non-episodic semantic restructuring correlates with surprise. Thus, even concise, factual information, we educators might consider students' "unknown knowns"--- knowledge learners gain without any understanding they have done so.