Immunotoxicology: challenges in the 21st century and in vitro opportunities.

摘要: Over the last two decades, little has changed in practice of immunotoxicity testing for regulatory purposes, especially immunosuppression, and autoimmunity is still a challenge. Current guidelines rely on animal tests, which include some immune endpoints repeated dose tests trigger dedicated only when certain alerts indicate problem. At same time, however, wealth vitro approaches been developed, but few have adopted routine testing. The extent to chemicals represents health problem human population at low levels exposure unclear: it appears that responses healthy individuals immunological challenges differ widely most immunomodulators adverse effects except they coincide with an infectious or malignant challenge early life expected, cases odds progressing into infection, autoimmune diseases, cancer can be changed. enormous overcapacity defense, presence compensatory mechanisms, their fast restoration each contribute limiting threats individual, though base also minor immunomodulation may result increased morbidity. In alternative allow screening problematic substances prioritize them vivo New are emerging from mapping pathways immunotoxicity. Increasingly, contribution inflammatory components outcome recognized various hazards, urging inclusion proinflammatory immunomodulatory properties integrated strategies.