Ungulate-large carnivore relationships in Europe.

摘要: Introduction Wherever carnivores are present in a hunting area, they blamed for reducing ungulate numbers. In the past, predator control was often carried out to promote game species (Filonov,1989; Jedrzejewska et al ., 1996; Jedrzejewski 1996). By contrast, regions where large predators have long been exterminated, numbers show pronounced fluctuations between years and their high densities accused of damaging forest regeneration farmland crops or biodiversity (Chapter 6 this volume, references therein). Recently, protection restitution top has viewed as necessary step towards conservation ecosystem (Ray, 2005). chapter, we review results European studies on carnivore predation ungulates. We attempt point what practical implications management emerged from those studies. also briefly theoretical predictions regarding predator–prey relationships. Ungulate populations influenced by many factors. Food supply (connected with habitat productivity) determines how individuals can live reproduce given area (Sinclair, 2003). Severe winter conditions may directly cause deaths (Okarma 1995; Del Giudice 2002; Jonas 2008), but climate indirect effects through altering food availability (Jonas 2008). Predators, diseases, hunters road traffic important factors mortality (Gazzola 2005; Chapters 8 11 volume).